{"id":414,"date":"2026-06-12T21:30:25","date_gmt":"2026-06-12T15:45:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/?p=414"},"modified":"2026-06-12T21:30:28","modified_gmt":"2026-06-12T15:45:28","slug":"mahakali-river-timeline","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/2026\/06\/12\/mahakali-river-timeline\/","title":{"rendered":"Mahakali River: A Timeline of Two Centuries of Neglect, Mismanagement, and Treason"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

After Nepal’s defeat in the Anglo-Nepal War, the Sugauli Treaty compelled Nepal to cede claims on the territories west of the Mahakali River. The treaty maintained complete sovereign right of Nepal on the river. Since the signing of the Mahakali Treaty, however, the river has been recognized as a “boundary river on major stretches between the two countries”. The following timeline of the Mahakali River (heavily based on Gyawali & Dixit, 2000<\/a> and Shrestha, 2025) shows that Nepal went from a 100% right to legally 50%, and practically less than 1% (details in upcoming articles). It is an agonizing tale of two centuries of neglect, mismanagement, and treason.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Mahakali
Mahakali River (after Gyawali & Dixit, 2000)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n\n \n Timeline of the Mahakali River Use<\/title>\n <style>\n :root {\n --primary-color: #0056b3;\n --secondary-color: #e9ecef;\n --text-color: #333;\n --bg-color: #faf8f5;\n --era-bg: #1a202c;\n --era-text: #ffffff;\n --date-color: #d9534f;\n --line-color: #cbd5e1;\n }\n\n body {\n font-family: -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, \"Segoe UI\", Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;\n background-color: var(--bg-color);\n color: var(--text-color);\n margin: 0;\n padding: 0;\n line-height: 1.6;\n }\n\n .timeline-wrapper {\n max-width: 1000px;\n margin: 40px auto;\n padding: 20px;\n }\n\n .timeline-header {\n text-align: center;\n margin-bottom: 50px;\n }\n\n .timeline-header h1 {\n color: var(--primary-color);\n font-size: 2.5em;\n margin-bottom: 10px;\n }\n\n .timeline-header p {\n color: #666;\n font-size: 1.1em;\n }\n\n .timeline {\n position: relative;\n padding: 20px 0;\n }\n\n \/* The vertical line *\/\n .timeline::before {\n content: '';\n position: absolute;\n top: 0;\n left: 50%;\n width: 4px;\n height: 100%;\n background-color: var(--line-color);\n transform: translateX(-50%);\n }\n\n .era-marker {\n display: flex;\n justify-content: center;\n margin: 40px 0;\n position: relative;\n z-index: 2;\n }\n\n .era-marker span {\n background-color: var(--era-bg);\n color: var(--era-text);\n padding: 10px 20px;\n border-radius: 30px;\n font-weight: bold;\n font-size: 1.2em;\n box-shadow: 0 4px 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.1);\n text-align: center;\n }\n\n .timeline-item {\n position: relative;\n margin-bottom: 40px;\n width: 100%;\n display: flex;\n justify-content: center;\n opacity: 0;\n transform: translateY(30px);\n transition: all 0.6s ease-out;\n }\n\n .timeline-item.visible {\n opacity: 1;\n transform: translateY(0);\n }\n\n .timeline-content {\n background-color: #fff;\n padding: 20px;\n border-radius: 8px;\n box-shadow: 0 4px 15px rgba(0,0,0,0.05);\n width: 42%;\n position: relative;\n border-top: 4px solid var(--primary-color);\n }\n\n \/* Dot on the line *\/\n .timeline-dot {\n position: absolute;\n top: 20px;\n left: 50%;\n width: 20px;\n height: 20px;\n background-color: var(--primary-color);\n border: 4px solid #fff;\n border-radius: 50%;\n transform: translateX(-50%);\n z-index: 2;\n box-shadow: 0 0 0 2px var(--line-color);\n }\n\n .left .timeline-content {\n margin-right: auto;\n margin-left: 0;\n }\n\n .right .timeline-content {\n margin-left: auto;\n margin-right: 0;\n }\n\n \/* Arrows pointing to the line *\/\n .left .timeline-content::after {\n content: '';\n position: absolute;\n top: 20px;\n right: -10px;\n border-width: 10px 0 10px 10px;\n border-style: solid;\n border-color: transparent transparent transparent #fff;\n }\n\n .right .timeline-content::after {\n content: '';\n position: absolute;\n top: 20px;\n left: -10px;\n border-width: 10px 10px 10px 0;\n border-style: solid;\n border-color: transparent #fff transparent transparent;\n }\n\n .timeline-date {\n font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--date-color);\n margin-bottom: 8px;\n display: inline-block;\n background-color: #fde8e8;\n padding: 4px 10px;\n border-radius: 12px;\n font-size: 0.9em;\n }\n\n .timeline-body p {\n margin: 0;\n font-size: 0.95em;\n color: #555;\n }\n\n ul {\n padding-left: 20px;\n margin-top: 10px;\n }\n\n ul li {\n font-size: 0.9em;\n margin-bottom: 5px;\n }\n\n \/* Responsive Design *\/\n @media screen and (max-width: 768px) {\n .timeline::before {\n left: 30px;\n }\n .timeline-item {\n justify-content: flex-start;\n }\n .timeline-content {\n width: calc(100% - 80px);\n margin-left: 70px !important;\n }\n .timeline-dot {\n left: 30px;\n }\n .left .timeline-content::after,\n .right .timeline-content::after {\n left: -10px;\n right: auto;\n border-width: 10px 10px 10px 0;\n border-color: transparent #fff transparent transparent;\n }\n }\n <\/style>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"timeline-wrapper\">\n <div class=\"timeline-header\">\n <h1>Timeline of the Mahakali River Use<\/h1>\n <p>A historical overview of treaties, agreements, and events surrounding the Mahakali River.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline\">\n\n <!-- Era 1 -->\n <div class=\"era-marker\"><span>Thapa-Rana Era (1816-1951)<\/span><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Mar 4, 1816<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>The <b>Sugauli Treaty<\/b> concluded to end the Anglo-Nepal War during the premiership of Bhimsen Thapa, defined the national frontiers of present-day Nepal and established the <b>Mahakali River<\/b> (referred to as the <b>Sarada River<\/b> in India) as the western boundary between Nepal and British India.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Nov 15, 1860<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Following the <b>Sepoy Mutiny of 1857<\/b> and <b>Jung Bahadur Rana<\/b>‘s assistance in its oppression, the <b>British gifted the southern reaches of the river<\/b> back to Nepal.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">1909 – Feb 1912<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>The main channel of the <b>Mahakali River shifted eastwards<\/b>, turning the present-day <b>Chandani-Dodhara<\/b> into an island<sup>1<\/sup>. The <b>British India<\/b> government ordered a <b>re-alignment of the boundary<\/b> in 1909, with demarcations completed by February 1912.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">1916 – 1920<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><b>Exchange of Letters (EOL)<\/b> commenced regarding the construction of a <b>barrage at Gaddachouki-Banbasa in the Mahakali River<\/b> after the Resident of British India to Nepal, <b>J. Manners Smith<\/b>, wrote to Prime Minister <b>Chandra SJB Rana<\/b>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">12 October, 1920<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>The <b>Sarada “Treaty”<\/b> concluded with EOL between <b>Chandra SJB Rana<\/b> and <b>Colonel Kennion<\/b>. Nepal agreed to transfer 4,000 acres of the Mahakali’s eastern banks to India so it could build the <b>Sarada Barrage<\/b>. In exchange, Nepal received forested land, Rs 50,000, and specified allowances for water withdrawal.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- Era 2 -->\n <div class=\"era-marker\"><span>Post-Ranarchy Democratic Era (1951-1960)<\/span><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">1954 – 1958<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>India <b>extended<\/b> the <b>left afflux bund of the Sarada Barrage<\/b> about 100 meters beyond <b>border pillar BP 6A<\/b> into Nepali territory.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- Era 3 -->\n <div class=\"era-marker\"><span>Panchayat Era (1960-1990)<\/span><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">1971 – 1989<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Using a loan from the World Bank, Nepal planned and commenced the <b>Mahakali Irrigation Project<\/b> to utilize the share of water as permitted under the 1920 Sarada Treaty. The project did not get ahead and was cancelled in 1989.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">1983 – 1988<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong><u>Tanakpur Barrage Project<\/u><\/strong><\/p><br>\n <p><strong>1983:<\/strong> India finished the technical study for a <b>120 MW hydroelectric project near Tanakpur<\/b>, prompting Nepal to <b>raise concerns<\/b> about potential damage to Nepali land and its Mahakali Irrigation Project.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>1988:<\/strong> India <b>completed<\/b> the construction of the <b>Tanakpur Barrage and Powerhouse<\/b> on its side (the right afflux bund).<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">March 31, 1990<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Amidst anti-regime protests by Nepali Congress and Left Front in Nepal, a <b>draft proposed by India to amend the 1950 Treaty of Friendship<\/b> included clauses on the <b>joint use of rivers and water resources<\/b>. Nepal refused.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">April 9, 1990<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><b>End of the Panchayat System<\/b>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- Era 4 -->\n <div class=\"era-marker\"><span>Post-Panchayat Multiparty Democratic Era (1990-2006)<\/span><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">June 10, 1990<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Joint communique released during the visit of the <b>interim government’s PM Krishna Prasad Bhattarai<\/b> to India included the phrase <b>“common rivers”<\/b> in the spirit of the March 31 draft treaty.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Dec 28, 1990<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Formation of a <b>technical team<\/b> by the <b>Minister of Water Resources Mahendra Narayan Nidhi<\/b> to review the Tanakpur problem.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Feb 22, 1991<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>The technical team recommended <b>Nepal could agree with India on minimizing submergence in Nepal while meeting Indian requests<\/b>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">May 1991<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>May 12:<\/strong> General Elections.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>May 17:<\/strong> Indian PM <b>Chandra Shekhar<\/b> asked for <b>permission to build the left afflux bund<\/b> on the Nepalese side.<\/p><br>\n<p><strong>May 27:<\/strong> <b>Girija Prasad Koirala<\/b> heads the government.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">June 10, 1991<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Nepali PM GP Koirala replied that <b>permission regarding the left afflux bund of Tanakpur could only be given after detailed study and agreement<\/b>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Dec 5-10, 1991<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>During the visit to New Delhi at the invitation of the Indian PM PV Narasimha Rao, PM Girija Prasad Koirala <b>entered into an ‘understanding’<\/b> allowing India use of <b>577 meters of Nepali territory<\/b> for the <b>Tanakpur Barrage left afflux bund<\/b>. Koirala called it a <b>mere understanding<\/b>, not a formal treaty.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Dec 15-23, 1991<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Dec 15:<\/strong> PM Koirala promised to make the contents of the understanding <b>public<\/b>.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Dec 16\/17:<\/strong> India <b>begins construction<\/b>.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Dec 17:<\/strong> Writ filed by <b>Advocate Bal Krishna Neupane<\/b> at Supreme Court arguing it required parliamentary ratification.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Dec 23:<\/strong> Understanding <b>published<\/b> in Nepal Gazette<sup>2<\/sup>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">March & Sept 1992<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>March 29<sup>3<\/sup>:<\/strong> <b>UML MPs, led by Bharat Mohan Adhikari<\/b> occupied the HoR rostrum for 7 hours.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Sept 9:<\/strong> <b>Eight communist factions<\/b> demanded parliamentary ratification of the Tanakpur Understanding.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Oct & Dec 1992<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Oct:<\/strong> Indian <b>PM Narasimha Rao<\/b> ‘renegotiated’ <b>Tanakpur<\/b>, increasing “free” electricity to Nepal from <b>10 to 20 million units<\/b>.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Dec 15:<\/strong> <b>Supreme Court<\/b> ruled that the <b>understanding of December 1991 was a treaty<\/b> requiring ratification by the parliament.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">January 1993<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><b>Lok Raj Baral Commission<\/b> formed to fix criteria on whether river agreements constituted <b>“pervasive, serious and long-term” issues<\/b>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">March 1993 & July 1994<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Mar 1993:<\/strong> Amidst attempts to ratify the Tanakpur Understanding through simple majority of the parliament, <b>Ganesh Man Singh<\/b> wrote: <i>\u201cPassing the Tanakpur Treaty by a simple majority of the lower house of the parliament would be equivalent to signing a death warrant. My conscience prevents me from putting my signature to it. Please do not compel me to go against my conscience.\u201d<\/i><\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Jul 1994:<\/strong><b>Koirala government fell.<\/b><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <!-- Mahakali Treaty Sub-Era -->\n <div class=\"era-marker\"><span>The Mahakali Treaty Phase<\/span><\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Nov 1994 – Apr 1995<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Nov 30:<\/strong> <b>UML minority govt formed after mid-term elections.<\/b><\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Apr 4:<\/strong> UML put forth a “package deal” including a <b>6840 MW Pancheshwar Dam<\/b>.<br>\nThe draft treaty created a false narrative about the Mahakali River being a border river. It said, <i>“Mahakali is basically a border river between two countries, and both the countries are entitled to an equitable share in its use.\u201d<\/i><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Aug – Nov 1995<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Aug 28:<\/strong> After Manmohan Adhikari <b>recommended dissolution of the parliament<\/b>, the Supreme Court ruled that a minority prime minister does not have the right to dissolve the parliament as long as there are other possibilities of coalitions, reinstating the parliament. <b>Sher Bahadur Deuba government<\/b> was formed with a coalition between the NC, the RPP, and Sadbhawana.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Nov 17:<\/strong> Deuba presented a <b>similar draft treaty<\/b> as the UML.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Jan – Feb 1996<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Jan 26:<\/strong> The meeting of the three major parties: <b>UML, NC, and RPP<\/b> outside the parliament\/parliamentary committee reached the <i>\u201cNational Consensus on the Use of the Waters of the Mahakali River\u201d<\/i>. The signatories were: <b>Madhav Kumar Nepal<\/b> and <b>Khadga Prasad Oli<\/b> from the UML; <b>Chiranjivi Wagle<\/b> and <b>Bimalendra Nidhi<\/b> from the NC; and <b>Prakash Chandra Lohani (Foreign Minister)<\/b> and <b>Pashupati SJB Rana (Water Resources Minister)<\/b> from the RPP.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Jan 29:<\/strong> Foreign ministers of Nepal and India, <b>Prakash Chandra Lohani<\/b> and <b>Pranab Mukherjee<\/b>, respectively signed Mahakali Treaty (formally <b><i>the Treaty concerning the Integrated Development of the Mahakali River Including Sarada Barrage, Tanakpur Barrage and Pancheswar Project<\/i><\/b>).<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Feb 12:<\/strong> The Prime Ministers of Nepal and India, <b>Sher Bahadur Deuba<\/b> and <b>P.V. Narasimha Rao<\/b>, re-initialled the Mahakali Treaty in Delhi.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Feb 13:<\/strong> <b>CPN Maoist<\/b>, led by <b>Pushpa Kamal Dahal<\/b>, and <b>United Front<\/b>, led by <b>Baburam Bhattarai<\/b> united and declared <i>“People’s War”<\/i>. The second of their forty demands was the <b>repeal of the Mahakali Treaty<\/b>.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Feb 17:<\/strong> Indian Secretary of Power <b>S. Abraham<\/b> and Nepali Secretary of Water Resources <b>Dwarika Nath Dhungel<\/b> signed an umbrella <i>\u201cagreement between His Majesty\u2019s Government of Nepal and the Government of India concerning the electric power trade\u201d<\/i>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Apr – Aug 1996<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Apr 10:<\/strong> UML formed the <b>Oli Commission<\/b> to study the Mahakali Treaty and its implications although the party had already welcomed the signing of the treaty.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Aug 20:<\/strong> Water Resources Minister <b>Pashupati SJB Rana<\/b> tabled the Mahakali Treaty for <b>ratification<\/b> in the parliament.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>~ Aug 26:<\/strong> During their separate visits, the <b>British Minister of State for Parliamentary Affairs Liam Fox<\/b> and the <b>US Assistant Secretary of the State for South Asia Robin Raphael<\/b> hinted that non-ratification of the Mahakali Treaty would send a wrong signal and drive away private international investments in Nepal.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">Sept, 1996<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><strong>Sept 2-9:<\/strong> Oli Commission reported the presence of <b>Indian troops in Kalapani<\/b> in the headwaters of the Mahakali River. The UML split into two factions. The majority claimed that the treaty should be ratified and the flaws solved during the preparation of the DPR. The minority argued that the problems should be resolved completely before the ratification.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Sept 10:<\/strong> The <b>Secretary General of the UML<\/b> wrote a letter to HMG asking for its and the Indian government\u2019s written commitments on their <b>13-point demand<\/b> regarding the Mahakali River. <b>Foreign Minister Prakash Chandra Lohani<\/b> wrote a letter to the Indian ambassador seeking clarification of the issues raised by the UML. The ambassador <b>refused<\/b> to comment on the issues.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Sept 11:<\/strong> Prime Minister Deuba replied to the UML Secretary General that the issues were either covered by the treaty or would be handled by technical teams to be constituted between two governments.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Sept 19:<\/strong> The <b>Indian Ambassador<\/b>, in the second letter, assured that the government of India would cooperate with Nepal on issues raised by the UML <b>after the treaty was ratified<\/b>.<\/p><br>\n <p><strong>Sept 20:<\/strong>The <b>Mahakali Treaty was ratified<\/b> close to midnight by a two-thirds majority of the <b>joint Nepali Parliament<\/b>. A four-point stricture (sankalpa prastav) was also passed<sup>4<\/sup>. Out of the 259 MPs involved in the voting process, 220 voted in favour, 8 against, and 31 abstained. Even <b>two MPs nominated by the King<\/b> voted in favour despite the suggestion from King Birendra to abstain.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item left\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">June 4, 1997<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p><b>Instruments of ratification<\/b> exchanged between Nepali PM <b>Lokendra Bahadur Chand<\/b> and Indian PM <b>I.K. Gujral<\/b> during the latter’s visit to Nepal. The Nepali parliament’s stricture was excluded.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"timeline-item right\">\n <div class=\"timeline-dot\"><\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-content\">\n <div class=\"timeline-date\">August 2014<\/div>\n <div class=\"timeline-body\">\n <p>Exchange of Letters regarding the <b>TOR of Pancheshwar Development Authority (PDA)<\/b> during Indian PM <b>Narendra Modi<\/b>‘s visit at the invitation of the Nepali PM <b>Sushil Koirala<\/b>. The overarching <b>Mahakali River Commission (MRC)<\/b> is yet to form.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<script>\n \/\/ Simple script to add 'visible' class to timeline items as they scroll into view\n document.addEventListener(\"DOMContentLoaded\", function() {\n const items = document.querySelectorAll('.timeline-item');\n\n const observer = new IntersectionObserver((entries) => {\n entries.forEach(entry => {\n if (entry.isIntersecting) {\n entry.target.classList.add('visible');\n }\n });\n }, { threshold: 0.1 });\n\n items.forEach(item => {\n observer.observe(item);\n });\n });\n<\/script>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Footnotes:<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Ratan Bhandari says the Mahakali River changed its course in 1910 after a great flood on <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/VM9BAqEUc5I?si=AWpXqoYq0htkf6hc\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Sushant Pradhan Podcast (June 2, 2026)<\/a>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Both Gyawali & Dixit (2000) and Shrestha (2025) mention the publication of the Tanakpur Understanding in the Nepal Gazette (Rajpatra) providing slightly different dates. Gyawali & Dixit (2000) states December 24, 1991, and Shrestha (2025), December 23. The Rajpatra website does not host the document for neither of the provided dates.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gyawali & Dixit (2000) and Shrestha (2025) both describe the event of the UML’s rostrum occupation. However, the dates are different. While Gyawali & Dixit (2000) puts it on February 28, 1992, Shrestha (2025) places it on March 29.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Shrestha (2025), citing various sources including the ratified treaty, contends that the four-point stricture was never passed. A four-point TOR was provided for the Parliamentary Monitoring Joint Committee on October 10 set to monitor the treaty and its application.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">References:<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">GWP Nepal; Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha (JVS). (2020). <em>Troubled trans-boundary cooperation in South Asia: Indo-Nepal water resources treaties\/Gandak and Mahakali Treaties.<\/em> Retrieved June 11, 2026, from <a href=\"https:\/\/jvs-nwp.org.np\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/04\/Troubled-transboundary-cooperation-in-South-Asia.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">https:\/\/jvs-nwp.org.np\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/04\/Troubled-transboundary-cooperation-in-South-Asia.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Gyawali, D., & Dixit, A. (2000). Mahakali Impasse: A Futile Paradigm’s Bequested Travails. (D. Kumar, Ed.) <em>Domestic Conflict and Crisis of Governability in Nepal<\/em>, pp. 236-303. Retrieved June 2026<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Nepal Gazette. (1996, November 18). Retrieved from Department of Printing: <a href=\"http:\/\/rajpatra.dop.gov.np\/welcome\/book\/?ref=17636\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">http:\/\/rajpatra.dop.gov.np\/welcome\/book\/?ref=17636<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Shrestha, R. (2025). <em>Travails of Nepal’s Water Resources: A Century of Misadventure & Mal-Development.<\/em> Kathmandu, Nepal: Ekta Books Distributors.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A concise historical overview of the major treaties, agreements, events, and debates surrounding the Mahakali River.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":421,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[53,52],"tags":[54,56,57,58],"class_list":["post-414","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-mahakali-treaty","category-history","tag-mahakali-river","tag-nepal","tag-nepal-india-relations","tag-water-resource"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/Screenshot-2026-06-10-151450.png","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/414","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=414"}],"version-history":[{"count":30,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/414\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":462,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/414\/revisions\/462"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/421"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=414"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=414"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.dhakalankit.com.np\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=414"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}